Learn some pathophysiology with me!

Sorry I haven't made a post in a while.  Nursing school kind of sucks up all of my time.  However, I am currently in ZOO 325, which is Pathophysiology.  In order to study for an exam, I drew some pictures!  So if you want to learn about Immunity, then here you go!

BODY DEFENSES 

So there are two (2) kinds of defenses that your body puts up.  

1. Non Specific Defenses
2. Specific Defenses

There are some major defense organs, like the thymus, spleen, and lymphatic system. 

The thymus, which is made out of lymphatic tissue and is larger in children, builds immunities to good and bad antigens.  It also makes and houses T-Cells.  This gland shrinks with age.    

The spleen is the largest lymphatic organ.  It is highly vascularized, which means there is always a lot of blood going through it.  It has two parts, the red pulp and the white pulp.  The red pulp is filled with blood (that’s why it’s red ;) ).  It is a test site for erythrocytes (Red blood cells) and macrophages like to hang out there.  The white pulp traps debris and holds lymphocytes (B and T Cells).  

The lymphatic system acts as a filter for interstitial fluid.  It is made up of lymph nodes, are like traps.  These nodes can become inflamed when you are sick.  

Non specific body defenses act as the first line against pathogens.  There are mechanical as well as biological methods of non specific body defenses.  I will first talk about Non-SpecificMechanical Defenses.  

Your epithelium (SKIN) is one major mechanical defense.  It is there, coming in contact with all sorts of antigens and pathogens.  As long as it is in tact, it is a good barrier.  It is closely joined so that it is not leaky.  It is also a secretory system, and it repairs itself quickly.  

Mucus is also a good mechanical, non specific defense.  Mucus is made up of glycoproteins and water.  Mucus traps, holds, and removes things like dust, pathogens, and viruses.  Mucus is not only in your nose, but in the trachea and gut.  For example, it offers protection, like in the stomach lining.  

Flushing is the action of materials moving quickly out of the body.  The most common example would be tears flushing particles out of your eyes, but flushing also happens in the gut.  Think of when you eat some questionable Taco Bell at about 1 am… When you get the runs, that is an example of flushing!  YEA SCIENCE.  Flushing also occurs in the nose (sneezing), and when you pee (urinary tract!)

Digestive actions are also a good non specific mechanical body defense.  It happens in, not only your gut, but in the eyes, too!  It is basically just enzymes getting rid of bad/foreign particles.  

Biological body defenses are also very important.  

Inflammation is a biggie.  It helps trap and block invaders, then sets up an environment for tissue repair.  It also triggers an immune response with the help of cytokines (interleukins and interferons).  

Fever is also a biological defense.  Your body is able to raise its temperature in order to make a hostile environment for pathogens.  

There are also some cells that work as biological defenders.  Macrophages are the most popular.  The word “Macrophage” literally means “big eater.”  They ingest and process pathogens, then present the antigen (think of it as a little flag on pathogens that let others know what it is) on the surface of Antigen Presenting Cells (APCs), which are usually Helper T cells.  Then, they clear the cellular debris.  Polymorphonucleocytes (PMNs) are also part of this defense, as well as symbionts, and follicle mites.  

And then there is Specific Immunity.  Specific immunity is acquired.  That means that it is not innate (you are not born with it), and it is learned by your body.  It is also adaptive, meaning it responds to the environment.  Specific immunity is based on specialized proteins & cells, which offer cell-based immunity or humoral immunity.  In cell-based immunity, there are cells that attack invaders in the tissues.  In humoral immunity, specialized proteins and antibodies attack invaders in the body fluids.  So remember, cell-based means in the tissues and humoral means in the fluids.  

The big cells that are the specific defenders are called LYMPHOCYTES.  Lymphocytes are produced from stem cells in bone marrow, or in the liver and spleen in a fetsus’s case.  Lymphocytes are released as undifferentiated cells.  Some of them will move to the thymus, and some will stay in the bone marrow.  

These cells are then “trained” in their respective tissues to become either B cells or T cells.  This is called becoming IMMUNOCOMPETENT.  The cells are now about to recognize antigens, but they have not been exposed yet.  They are also learning how to differentiate “SELF” from “ENEMY.”  You wouldn’t want these guys attacking your own cells, so they need to learn what is a friend and what is a foe.  

After the cells become immunocompetent, they move into the peripheral lymphatics or tissues.  There, they wait to be “deployed.”

CELL MEDIATED IMMUNITY

Cell mediated immunity involves the T-Cells!  

T-Cells are able to recognize antigens because of T-Cell Receptors located on their cell membrane.  They are specific for specific antigens.  

T-Cells are used to attack BIG things, like abnormal cells, intracellular viruses, fungi, parasites, neoplasms, and foreign tissues (like a transplanted kidney).  T-Cells also release cytokines, which call for an immune response.  T-Cells can stimulate and control immune functions, and they attract macrophages and PMNs to the area for backup.  

There are several types of T Cells!

Cytotoxic T Cells (Tc) are the main soldier T Cell.  They directly attack invaders or other cells by using toxins.  

There are also Helper T Cells (Th) that act as a communicator or liaison between the cellular and humoral immunity systems.  The Th cells interact with Antigen Presenting Cells (APCs) and they can activate more T Cells and B Cells.  

Memory T cells are used as a secondary immune response after a person has already been exposed to that particular antigen.  

Suppressor T Cells work to inhibit Tc and antibody production.

And then there are Natural Killer T Cells (NK) that are able to recognize and interact with an antigen without prior exposure.  The are innate, so you are born with them.  Think of them as the Rambo of your T Cells.  They are most sensitive to antigens on infected cells and neoplasms, but they are not truly specific to one antigen.  They can also attack cells or other invaders that are covered with antibodies (antibodies like to cover the “bad guys” in order to signal to other cells that there is a bad guy).  

Humoral Immunity/Antibody-Mediated

In a Humoral Immunity response, the cells do not attack, but create antibodies that will attack.  

This involves the B Cells.  B Cells are not named “B” because they come from the bone marrow, but because they were originally found in the bura of fabricias in birds.  The human’s equivalent would be the bone marrow, liver, or spleen.  

After becoming immunocompetent, B Cells acquire either IgD or IgM antibodies (their receptors).  Then, they go to the peripheral lymphatics, where they wait to be used.  

When the B Cells are activated, they differentiate into Plasma Cells.  The plasma cells move into the blood and circulate.  The plasma cells produce antibodies at the rate of about 2,000 cells/second.  B Cells can also differentiate into Memory B Cells.  

Antibodies like to attack little things, like bacteria, viruses, and toxin molecules.  They will “cover” larger cells.  This alerts Natural Killer T cells and Cytotoxic T Cells that there is a bad guy.  

There are five types of Antibodies that I am studying, which are IgA, IgD, IgE, IgG, and IgM.  

IgA antibodies are secretions of exocrine glands (ducted glands).  They come from thinks like breast milk, tears, snot, sweat, urine, and bile.  They offer localized protection, and are tuned into viruses and bacteria.  

IgD antibodies form receptors on B Cells. 

The antibody that has the lowest concentration is the IgE antibody.  They attack parasites and allergies, and mostly attach to mast cells.  

The most abundant antibodies are IgG antibodies.  They enhance phagocytosis, neutralize toxins, and they cross the placenta to help protect the fetus.  

IgM antibodies are the antibodies that are first produced during a primary response.  So when your body comes in contact with an antigen it has never encountered before, IgM antibodies are produced.  They are also involved in blood typing.  

Here’s a graph of the primary immune response in relation to antibodies. 

As you can tell, the number of IgM antibodies increases first because you are coming in contact with a new antigen.  Then, levels of IgG antibodies increase in order to get rid of the bad guys. 

In a secondary immune response, the number of IgG antibodies increases at a quick rate because your body remembers that antigen because of the Memory T Cells and Memory B Cells that are produced.  

So say a bacteria enters your body.  Well, that bacteria has a little antigen on it.  A macrophage wants that antigen in order to process it and determine what antigen it is.  

The macrophage takes the antigen, using its MHC II receptor, presents the antigen to a T Helper “zero” cell by activating Interleukin 1.  The Th0 cell has a T Cell Receptor on it that, along with a CD4, is able to recognize and process that antigen.  

This process then activates an actual T Helper cell.  Using the cytokines Interleukin 4 or Interleukin 12 to start either a Cellular or Humoral response.  The Th cell can also use Interleukin 2 to clone itself. 

In a cellular response, The Th1 cell uses Interleukin 2 to activate a Cytotoxic T Cell.  The Tc uses its T Cell Receptor and CD8 to recognize a “bad guy.”  

In a humoral response, the Th2 cell uses Interleukin 4  to activate a B cell, which takes the antigen, engulfs it, processes it, and displays it outside on it’s cell membrane.  

I’m running out of study time, so no drawing. 

And how are you this evening... Mrs. Darcy?

Saturday Nights

... Approximately two minutes and 39 seconds later...

Reading Can Be Fun: The Hunger Games

I haven't blogged in a while.  My 30 Day Trial of some Adobe applications ran out, and I don't have any cool paint applications...  I'm in the process of looking at a Wacom Panda tablet to use for my doodles, so hopefully I can do more funny stuff soon.  For now, I'll do book reviews.

First of all, if you haven't read the Hunger Games trilogy by Suzanne Collins, you are missing out on a lot. YA Lit can be really irritating at times (Shiver, Linger, etc.), but Suzanne Collins is seriously doing it right, and I hope she continues to write.  If you don't already know, the Hunger Games series centers around the nation of Panem and a sixteen-year-old girl named Katniss Everdeen.

I know what you're thinking... "OMG Sixteen-year-old girl?!  It's Twilight!"  No.  Just... no.  The Twilight series has really given YA Lit a bad rep.  The Twilight books aren't bad.  They are a fun and addicting series.  However, the hype of the movies/merchandise/Robert Pattinson is so, so, so annoying that people who haven't even read the Twilight series or people who don't even recreationally read at all are starting to talk smack about YA books.  All the business with the Twi-Hards, Twi-Tards, Twilight Moms really takes away from the fact that the Twilight series got a lot of young people into reading, which is cool.  Reading is cool.

Anyway, back to the Hunger Games.  At this point, if you have not read the Hunger Games and you don't want any spoilers whatsoever... stop reading now because I'm about to geek about this a whole lot.  I'm just gonna discuss the info that you'd get from reading the first three chapters, so if you're not afraid of that, then read on.   

Panem is what was once known as North America.  The Hunger Games books dabble in the "dystopian/futuristic" genre, and years of natural disasters (rising sea levels, earthquakes, floods, hurricanes, droughts, etc.) led to a brutal war over resources, which gave rise to the nation of Panem.  Panem is divided into "12" districts, and there are maps that some readers have made that show where the districts would be located in relation to present day North America.  

Panem (Map by Maria Rizzoni)

Pretty cool.  Our main character, Katniss, lives in District 12, the coal mining district, which was once known as Appalachia.   Katniss is our narrator, so we see the world through her eyes... and things are pretty bleak.  District 12 is very poor, and Katniss notes that seeing people sick and starving in the middle of town is not uncommon.  Katniss lives with her mother and 12-year-old sister Prim.  Katniss' father died in a mining accident when she was 11, causing Katniss to become the sole "bread winner" for the family.  

The book begins on the Reaping, the day in which two children, one boy and one girl between the ages of 12 and 18, are randomly chosen from each district to compete in the Hunger Games.  The Hunger Games are held as a perpetual punishment to remind the districts who is in charge, which would be The Capitol.  The Capitol is a dictatorship-type government that arose from the rubble of North America.  District 13 rebelled against the Capitol, resulting in a full uprising.  The Capitol then blew District 13 off the map.  As a reminder of how much power the Capitol truly holds, they hold the Hunger Games.  The 24 children that are chosen in the Reaping go on to fight til the death in the Capitol-made arena.  Only one child is crowned victor, and the victor's district is rewarded with food and provisions.   Just let that sink in.  The government takes two children from your community and forces them into an arena where they will either kill others or be slaughtered by another child.  "Look how we take your children and sacrifice them and there's nothing you can do.  If you lift a finger, we will destroy every last one of you.  Just as we did in District Thirteen."

From there, the reader is dropped into the kind of horror that is the Hunger Games.  I won't give too much away, but I will say this-- I was very surprised at the amount of action and violence in these books.  There were some parts where I just had to put the book down and regain composure.  Also, it is a very fast paced series.  I had to reread several parts of the book because I couldn't believe what had just happened.

I bought the three Hunger Games books together from Amazon but didn't start reading them until months later.  In September or October I tried reading the first book, but I just couldn't get past the first few pages.  School was getting busier and I didn't have time for a story that didn't grab me immediately.  Looking back, if I had read just like.... one or two more pages, I would have been hooked.  Finally, this past March I started reading them for reals.  I finished the first one in eight days, the second one in nine days, and the third book in about five days.  So it took almost a month for me to finish the series, but that's pretty good considering I'm going to school full time and working on campus part time.

They have started production on the first Hunger Games movie.  Gary Ross is directing, and he's pretty awesome.  He's only directed four films, I think, but one of those four is Pleasantville, and that movie is incredible.  People were all up in arms over who is playing who, but personally, I think the cast is great... I may still be shocked over picking Lenny Kravitz to play Cinna... but I have faith.  Some pictures from a few cast members on the set of the Reaping have been leaked, and it already looks great.  Everyone looks how they are supposed to.  Jennifer Lawrence was wearing the blue dress with her hair braided, Prim was wearing the ruffly blouse with the back untucked, and Effie had a pink wig.  So far, so good.

One thing about the Hunger Games fandom that I'm starting to really dislike, however, is the question of "Team Gale or Team Peeta????!!" which is a definite residual effect from the Twilight series.  The big difference is that the plot of the Hunger Games does not center around which boy our main character decides to love.  Twilight's plot centered around Bella's decisions and the animosity between Jacob and Edward.  The Hunger Games is about the strife the poor people of the districts go through, and how Katniss tries to take down the Capitol.  Katniss' "decision" between Peeta and Gale (if you can even call it that) is a minor detail.  For some reason, YA readers have become obsessed with this "Team _____"
phenomenon.  I don't particularly care for it... I'm of the mind set that strong female leads do not need this kind of crutch to carry them through three or four books.  That said, Bella is not a strong enough character to go without the Team Edward/Team Jacob dilemma(in my opinion).  

So I've reached the age of 20 and I still thoroughly enjoy YA fiction.  I don't exactly know when this love and enjoyment will end, but I'd just like to say that not all YA books are stupid and for younger crowds.  If you shut out the YA genre, you are cheating yourself out of a lot of great literature.  

Teen Mom

I'm pretty sure everyone has seen Teen Mom, Mtv's crude and gaudy reality show that follows around teen mothers.

From what I understand, they start with "16 and Pregnant," where they document the lives of a few 15/16/17 year olds as they deal with the trials and tribulations of being a pregnant teenager.

  More often than not, the girls come from broken homes, which is obviously not something to laugh at.  Take, for example, Teen Mom Catelynn (the one with the braces.)  Her life was all kinds of cracked out. Catelynn and her boyfriend Tyler got pregnant while Catelynn's mother, April, married Tyler's father, Butch.  I'm just as puzzled as you are.  April is probably the most terrifying woman in the galaxy.  Imagine a planet of the apes monkey crossed with Joan Rivers.... and a Tusken Raider...

My main beef with Mtv in this scenario is that they didn't try to intervene during the several instances where April threatened violence against her daughter.  I understand that drama like this is what draws viewers in and keeps them hooked, but honestly, this is pitiful.

Arguing on Catelynn's behalf seems pretty counter productive and arbitrary, but giving her baby up for adoption was certainly the best option for her.  She could barely tolerate living with April and Butch.  That crack house of a home is no place to raise a baby.  More people should take Catelynn's initiative instead of being selfish and keeping the child in your messed up life.  But that is neither here nor there

I feel extremely silly having invested any thought into that argument.

Another "family" (I use this term ever so loosely) from Teen Mom that deserves an honorable mention is Amber and Gary.  Sweet Lord have mercy, Amber and Gary.

Gary

Jabba

Amber is the stereotypical fat, angry white girl.  She, like all the other girls on the program, hardly has the means and experience to raise a child.  But who cares, right?  It's just a baby, it'll be fine.  

She and her babydaddy, Gary, are constantly arguing and weaving a colorful tapestry of horrifying words as their daughter climbs on top of an entertainment center.  

Amber has made headlines several times, mainly for domestic violence against big ol' Gary.  She slaps him, calls him all sorts of names and phrases, and threatens him and even herself at one point.  I believe she told Gary to push her down a flight of stairs during the episode in which she had her largest tantrum. In my opinion, Gary missed a golden opportunity there.  

Once again, Mtv failed to prevent said domestic violence and let it all pan out.  I suppose they've decided to take a National Geographic approach, meaning that documentarists wouldn't stop a lion from taking down a gazelle... or in this case an elephant seal taking on... another elephant seal of only slightly larger girth and aptitude.  However, displaying this kind of violence, where there's a child involved, is trash.  I don't know if Mtv was trying to shed some light on the sensitive subject of domestic abuse, but they failed.  Nobody looked at that and said, "Look at how Gary rose up and defended his integrity!  Look at how he carried himself with poise and aplomb!"  This is how he really defended himself:

Because Mtv is a cruel god, Gary and Amber (mostly Amber) have become "celebrities."  What?... I mean, really?  These two stupid idiots are now news worthy?  All because they accidentally got pregnant and slap each other?  

In my dystopian Orwellian universe, individuals would have to pass an exam in order to have children.  What would happen if they fail can be left up to your own imagination.  It's interesting that we must obtain a drivers license if we want to (legally) drive a car, but we can procreate without inhibition!

With all the debate of pro-choice vs. pro-life, it's amazing what we are willing to do to our children.  Let them be filmed by Mtv camera crews, let them witness a shouting match between Mommy and Daddy and let it be filmed so that she can see it on Youtube when she's older.  I wonder how these kids will feel when they are older, seeing their mothers and fathers screaming and hitting each other for the entire world to see.  

  

Formaldehyde Fridays

I have been up since 7 am yesterday, with a 2 hour nap serving as a break.  I've been studying for a lab practical I have in about an hour.  What's more appropriate at this point than to write a blog?

So this lab is for ZOO 172, Human Anatomy & Physiology.  It's basically just memorize all the things.  This class is the second half of a sequence, the first being ZOO 171.  ZOO 171 lab wasn't as difficult as this is.  171 was considered a "Miami Plan" course, or the equivalent to a gen. ed.  Because of this, we had to do a "discussion group" project... which was just standing up in front of the class and talking about some kind of deadly infection of your choosing.  We did MRSA.
So that was an easy 20 points.
In 172, we don't have those groups.  We have quizzes.  And actual practicals.  Exams in 171 were like this:
The prof would come in, tell us to get out a blank sheet of paper, and fire up old projector.  Then he'd show us slides of different tissue types, or different phases of mitosis.  Easy enough.
In 172, which is now strictly nursing student, we have real practicals.  In a microbiology class I took last year, we had "real" practicals.  In a practical, there are stations set up around the lab, and you get about a minute and a half to answer 2 questions at the station, then you move to the next.
Our practical today is 40 questions, 2 questions per station.
The subject matter?
EVERY SINGLE MUSCLE, EVERY SINGLE BONE, MUSCLE ORIGINS, MUSCLE INSERTIONS, CAT DISSECTIONS, AND THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM.
Seriously?

I think what I'm looking forward to the most is panicking over the cats we've been dissecting.  The prof will put pins in different muscles, and we have to name the muscle, origin, and insertion.
This wouldn't be so bad if I didn't have such an XTREME reaction to formaldehyde.

The first day we started cat dissections, the prof exclaimed,"FIND A LAB PARTNER!"  I had picked out mine, but she wasn't aware that I chose her.  I looked to her to see if she'd like to pair up, but some other hoe already got to her.  So I look around the room, and by God, everyone had already gotten a partner.
I was the only person without a partner.
I asked the girl who I WANTED to be partners with if I could be in her group.  She said sure.
Super duper.
The first two weeks of dissections were supposed to strictly muscles.  Strictly muscles, as in, do no cut the cat open.
The first thing the girls in my group did was split it down the middle, and then all of the cat's guts flopped out.
Great.
So I grab a scapula and try to inch my way towards the cat.  All of a sudden, it's like someone has dumped an entire bottle of Frank's chili sauce directly onto my eyeballs.  If you didn't know any better, you'd think that my entire family had been blown up and eaten by grizzly bears and I was just finding out.
I asked the other girls in my group, "Does this stuff bother your eyes really bad?  Mine are kind of... on fire."
They both just shrug and say,"No... just makes my nose run a little."

So I'm really excited to take this practical.